WooCommerce Remove Duplicate Listing Prices

On my store at gifting.wildroots.in the product grid is displaying the price twice—once in the usual spot and then again directly beneath it. This only happens on the product listing (shop) page; individual product, cart, and checkout screens all look fine.

I’m running WooCommerce on a ThemeForest theme with a few small code tweaks in the child theme, but nothing major that should affect pricing output. I’d like someone to locate the template hook or CSS/JS rule causing the duplication and clean it up so each item shows a single, correct price without breaking any of the theme styling or future updates.

Deliverable:
• Updated template, hook adjustment, or CSS override committed in the child theme (or a lightweight plugin if you prefer) that removes the second price instance and leaves the rest of the layout untouched.

Please test on both desktop and mobile views before handing over the fix.